📘 Chapter 1: The French Revolution – Summary 🔰 Introduction: The French Revolution began in 1789 and is one of the most significant events in world history. It marked the end of monarchy in France and led to the rise of democracy and modern political ideas such as liberty, equality, and fraternity . 🏰 France Before the Revolution: Absolute Monarchy: King Louis XVI ruled France with complete power. He believed in the Divine Right of Kings. Social Structure (Three Estates): First Estate: Clergy – privileged and exempt from taxes. Second Estate: Nobility – also exempt from taxes and held top positions. Third Estate: Common people (peasants, workers, merchants) – paid all taxes and had no political rights. Economic Crisis: France was in heavy debt due to wars (especially helping the American Revolution). Poor harvests and rising food prices led to famine and anger among the poor. Tax burden was unfairly placed on the Third Estate. Ideas of Enlightenmen...
India’s political landscape has undergone significant transformations since the late 1980s, marking the decline of single-party dominance and the rise of coalition governments, economic reforms, caste-based mobilization, and religious-political movements. This period has shaped the country's democratic processes, influencing governance, electoral trends, and policy decisions. This essay explores the major political developments from the late 1980s to the present, highlighting key changes in party politics, coalition governments, caste and communal issues, economic policies, and electoral trends. 1. Context of the 1990s: A Turning Point in Indian Politics The late 1980s and early 1990s saw a series of crucial developments that fundamentally changed India’s political dynamics. The period witnessed the weakening of the Congress Party’s dominance, the rise of caste-based and regional parties, economic liberalization, and religious-political movements. 1.1 Decline of Congress Dominance ...