Political Science Notes By ARVIND SINGH

✦ कांग्रेस प्रणाली : चुनौतियां और पुनर्स्थापना प्रस्तावना भारत की स्वतंत्रता के बाद पहले दो दशकों तक कांग्रेस पार्टी न केवल सबसे प्रभावशाली राजनीतिक दल थी, बल्कि देश की राजनीतिक व्यवस्था का आधार भी बन गई थी। इस दौर को ही “कांग्रेस प्रणाली” कहा जाता है। नेहरू के नेतृत्व में कांग्रेस ने राष्ट्र-निर्माण, लोकतंत्र की स्थिरता और विकास की रूपरेखा तय की। किंतु 1960 के दशक में यह प्रणाली गंभीर चुनौतियों से गुज़री। यह दशक भारतीय लोकतंत्र के लिए “खतरनाक युग” (Dangerous Decade) कहा गया क्योंकि इस दौरान राजनीतिक उत्तराधिकार, खाद्यान्न संकट, युद्ध, महंगाई और कांग्रेस संगठन के भीतर शक्ति संघर्ष जैसे प्रश्न खड़े हुए। I. नेहरू के बाद राजनीतिक उत्तराधिकार की चुनौती 1. “खतरनाक युग” – 1960 का दशक नेहरू (1964) और शास्त्री (1966) की मृत्यु ने सत्ता के उत्तराधिकार को अस्थिर बना दिया। विदेशी पर्यवेक्षकों ने आशंका जताई कि भारत की लोकतांत्रिक व्यवस्था टूट सकती है और सेना सत्ता पर कब्जा कर सकती है। किंतु भारत ने लोकतांत्रिक परंपराओं के अनुरूप शांतिपूर्ण सत्ता-हस्तांतरण की मिसाल पेश की। 2. लाल बहाद...

✦ Chapter 2: Constitutional Design (NCERT – Class 9, Democratic Politics) Overview In every democracy, rulers cannot govern arbitrarily. Their powers and functions are defined and limited by the Constitution , which is the supreme law of the land . The Constitution lays down the framework of governance, defines the rights of citizens, and sets limits on government authority. It embodies the values, principles, and aspirations of society. The study of constitutional design answers four crucial questions: Why do we need a Constitution? Who makes it? What values shape it? Can it be changed? 2.1 Democratic Constitution in South Africa South Africa provides an inspiring example of how a nation can move from deep social injustice to one of the most progressive democracies in the world. Nelson Mandela’s Struggle Nelson Mandela devoted his life to fighting racial oppression. He opposed both white and black domination and was sentenced to life imprisonment in 1964 for his fight...

  📘 Chapter-1: What is Democracy? Why Democracy? (NCERT Class 9, Democratic Politics-I) Descriptive Notes (Summary + Explanation) Objective Questions (MCQ, Fill-ups, True/False, Match) Subjective Questions (1, 2, 3, 4 marks answers) ✨ Descriptive Notes 📖 Definition Democracy = “Government of the people, by the people, for the people.” — Abraham Lincoln Derived from Greek word “Demokratia” : Demos = People Kratia = Rule/Power 🏛️ Features of Democracy Elected Rulers – Leaders are chosen through free and fair elections. One Person, One Vote, One Value – Every adult citizen has equal voting rights. Freedom – Citizens enjoy freedom of speech, expression, and access to information. Accountability – The government is responsible and answerable to the people. 🗳️ Types of Democracy Direct Democracy – People directly take decisions. (Ancient Athens) Representative Democracy – People elect representatives who decide on their behalf. (India) ✅ Merits...

Chapter 4: India’s Foreign Policy notes and Q&A: Chapter-4: India’s Foreign Policy Summary: India’s foreign policy after independence was shaped under the leadership of Jawaharlal Nehru, based on peace, coexistence, and non-alignment. Its goals were to safeguard national interests, promote global peace, and support the independence of colonized nations. Enrichment: Nehru called it “India’s voice on the global stage.” Key Points: Non-Aligned Movement (NAM): India distanced itself from USA and USSR blocs during the Cold War. The 1955 Bandung Conference and the 1961 founding of NAM (Nehru, Nasser, Tito) strengthened it. Interesting: Today, NAM has 120+ members. Panchsheel Principles: In the 1954 India-China agreement, five principles were established: (1) territorial integrity, (2) non-aggression, (3) non-interference in internal affairs, (4) equality and cooperation, (5) peaceful coexistence. Enrichment: Inspired by the UN Charter. Relations with China: India recogniz...

Chapter 3: Politics of Planned Development notes, including the Q&A: Chapter-3: Politics of Planned Development Summary: Planning means organizing resources for social and economic goals to achieve maximum benefit. In India, the goal of planned development was to ensure economic progress along with social and economic justice. The government played the central role in this. Enrichment: Nehru called it the "Commanding Heights." Key Points: Planning Commission (1950): After independence, inspired by the Soviet model, the Planning Commission was set up in 1950 (original mentions 1951, but the correct year is 1950). Its aim was to formulate long-term development policies. First Five-Year Plan (1951-56): Focused on poverty alleviation and agriculture; investment in dams (Bhakra Nangal) and irrigation. Interesting: Bhakra dam was called a “modern temple.” Second Five-Year Plan (1956-61): Based on P.C. Mahalanobis model, emphasized heavy industries (steel, machine...

Chapter-1: Challenges of Nation-Building Summary: India gained independence on 15 August 1947 (Note: The original mentions 14 August, but the correct date is 15 August—midnight independence). Jawaharlal Nehru delivered the famous “Tryst with Destiny” speech in the Constituent Assembly, pledging to remove poverty, inequality, and ignorance through freedom and empowerment, and to build a democratic and progressive India. Interesting fact: This speech was broadcast on radio and today has millions of views on YouTube. Major Challenges for Independent India: Nation-Building: To integrate 500+ princely states into one nation, accommodating diversity. Example: Like assembling a jigsaw puzzle. Establishing Democracy: Implementing the Constitution (took 2 years, 11 months, 18 days to draft) and setting up a democratic system. Socio-Economic Development: Uplifting the poor and marginalized (Dalits, Adivasis). Note: Reservation continues to be debated today. Partition Challenges...

Chapter-2: The Era of One-Party Dominance Summary: Many post-colonial countries experienced non-democratic regimes after independence, but in India, the leaders of the freedom struggle were deeply committed to democracy. The Constitution of India was adopted on 26 November 1949 and came into force on 26 January 1950. Enrichment: It is the world’s longest written constitution, with 395 Articles and 8 Schedules. The first general elections of 1952 posed a huge challenge for the Election Commission. Yet, 170 million voters enthusiastically participated, and the elections were considered “free and fair.” The results showed a sweeping victory for the Congress, surprising many. Jawaharlal Nehru, as expected, became the first Prime Minister. Interesting fact: With a 53% turnout, it was the world’s largest democratic experiment, where ballot boxes were flown by aircraft to remote areas. Like many countries, India too witnessed one-party dominance, but Congress dominance was unique becaus...

  अध्याय-1 : राष्ट्र-निर्माण की चुनौतियाँ सारांश : भारत ने 15 अगस्त 1947 को स्वतंत्रता प्राप्त की (नोट: मूल में 14 अगस्त लिखा है, लेकिन सही तिथि 15 अगस्त है—आधी रात को स्वतंत्रता मिली)। जवाहरलाल नेहरू ने संविधान सभा में प्रसिद्ध भाषण “Tryst with Destiny” (नियति से मिलन) दिया, जिसमें उन्होंने गरीबी, असमानता और अज्ञानता को दूर करने तथा स्वतंत्रता व सशक्तिकरण के माध्यम से एक लोकतांत्रिक और प्रगतिशील भारत बनाने का संकल्प व्यक्त किया। रोचक तथ्य: यह भाषण रेडियो पर प्रसारित हुआ था और आज यूट्यूब पर इसके लाखों व्यूज़ हैं। स्वतंत्र भारत की प्रमुख चुनौतियाँ : राष्ट्र-निर्माण → 500+ रियासतों को एक राष्ट्र में जोड़ना और विविधताओं को समाहित करना। उदाहरण: जैसे कोई जिग्सॉ पज़ल जोड़ना। लोकतंत्र की स्थापना → संविधान लागू करना (जिसे बनाने में 2 साल 11 महीने 18 दिन लगे) और लोकतांत्रिक व्यवस्था खड़ी करना। सामाजिक-आर्थिक विकास → गरीबों व हाशिए पर खड़े वर्गों (दलित, आदिवासी) का उत्थान करना। नोट: आज भी आरक्षण पर बहस जारी है। विभाजन की चुनौतियाँ : भारत और पाकिस्तान का विभाज...

 Chapter 2: People as Resource 1. Classification of Activities Human beings perform various activities which can be divided into two categories— (A) Economic Activities Activities through which income/money is earned. Examples: Farmers, laborers, shopkeepers, doctors, lawyers, taxi drivers, manufacturers, etc. (B) Non-Economic Activities Activities that do not provide any economic benefit and are done only for social/personal reasons. Examples: Household work, helping the poor, voluntary service, etc. 2. Types of Economic Activities Market Activities Work done in exchange for payment/profit. Example: Growing crops and selling them in the market. Non-Market Activities Work done for self-consumption or for creating permanent assets. Example: Kitchen garden, production for family use. 3. Human Capital Definition : Human capital is the knowledge, skills, and productive capacity inherent in people. When investment is made in education, training, and he...